Just for statistically intimidated people (wait, it should be 'intimidated by statistics') that can identify themselves with this joke:
A patient asks his surgeon what the odds are of him surviving an impending operation. The doctor replies that the odds are usually 50-50. "But there is no need to worry," the doctor explains.
"The first fifty have already died.
It is meant to be a quick reference for those confused with the terminology and overlapping tests - I am not addressing confidence intervals.
COMPARING PROPORTIONS BETWEEN SAMPLES:
I will use the following toy tabulated data:
Antacid <- matrix(c(64, 178 - 64, 92, 190 - 92), nrow = 2)
Antacid_marginals <- matrix(c(64, 178 - 64, 92, 190 - 92), nrow = 2)
Antacid_marginals <- rbind(Antacid_marginals, margin.table(Antacid_marginals,2))
Antacid_marginals <- cbind(Antacid_marginals, margin.table(Antacid_marginals,1))
dimnames(Antacid_marginals) = list(Symptoms = c("Heartburn", "Normal","Totals"),
Medication = c("Drug A", "Drug B", "Totals"))
This is what it looks like (with marginals):
Medication
Symptoms Drug A Drug B Totals
Heartburn 64 92 156
Normal 114 98 212
Totals 178 190 368
So we have 368patients: 178 on Drug A, and 190 on Drug B and we try to see if there are differences in the proportion of heartburn symptoms between drug A and B, i.e. $p1 = 64/178$ vs $p2 = 92/190$.
1. FISHER EXACT TEST: There is a discussion on Wikipedia about "Controversies". Based on the hypergeometric distribution, it is probably most adequate when the expected values in any of the cells of a contingency table are below 5 - 10. The story of the RA Fisher and the tea lady is great, and can be reproduced in [R] by simply grabbing the code here. [R] seems to tolerate without a pause the large numbers in our data (no problem with factorials):
Antacid <- matrix(c(64, 178 - 64, 92, 190 - 92), nrow = 2)
fisher.test(Antacid, alternative = "two.sided")
Fisher's Exact Test for Count Data
data: Antacid
p-value = 0.02011
alternative hypothesis: true odds ratio is not equal to 1
95 percent confidence interval:
0.3850709 0.9277156
sample estimates:
odds ratio
0.5988478
2. CHI-SQUARE TEST OF HOMOGENEITY: Otherwise known as the goodness of fit Pearson's chi squared test. For larger samples (> 5 expected frequency count in each cell) the $\chi^2$ provides an approximation of the significance value. The test is based on calculating the expected frequency counts obtained by cross-multiplying the marginals (assuming normal distribution of the marginals, it makes sense that we end up with a $\chi^2$ distributed test statistic, since if $X\sim N(\mu,\sigma^)$, then $X^2\sim \chi^2(1))$:
Medication
Symptoms Drug A Drug B
Heartburn 156 * 178 / 368 = 75 156 * 190 / 368 = 81
Normal 212 * 178 / 368 = 103 212 * 190 / 368 = 109
The degrees of freedom will be calculated as the {number of populations (Heartburn sufferers and Normals, i.e. 2) minus 1 } * {number of levels in the categorical variable (Drug A and Drug B, i.e. 2) minus 1}. Therefore, in a 2x2 table we are dealing with 1 d.f. And crucially, a $\chi^2$ of $1\,df$ is exactly a squared $N \sim (0,1)$ (proof here), which explains the sentence "a chi-square test for equality of two proportions is exactly the same thing as a z-test. The chi-squared distribution with one degree of freedom is just that of a normal deviate, squared. You're basically just repeating the chi-squared test on a subset of the contingency table" in this post.
The Test Statistic is calculated as:
$\chi^2=\frac{(64-75)^2}{75} + \frac{(92-81)^2}{81} +\frac{(114-103)^2}{103} + \frac{(98-109)^2}{109} = 5.39$
This is calculated in R with the function prop.test() or chisq.test(), which should yield the same result, as indicated here:
prop.test(Antacid, correct = F)
2-sample test for equality of proportions without continuity correction
data: Antacid
X-squared = 5.8481, df = 1, p-value = 0.01559
alternative hypothesis: two.sided
95 percent confidence interval:
-0.22976374 -0.02519514
sample estimates:
prop 1 prop 2
0.4102564 0.5377358
or..
chisq.test(Antacid, correct = F)
Pearson's Chi-squared test
data: Antacid
X-squared = 5.8481, df = 1, p-value = 0.01559
3. G-TEST: The Pearson's chi-test statistic is the second order Taylor expansion around 1 of the G test; hence they tend to converge. In R:
library(DescTools)
GTest(Antacid, correct = 'none')
Log likelihood ratio (G-test) test of
independence without correction
data: Antacid
G = 5.8703, X-squared df = 1, p-value = 0.0154
4. Z-TEST OF PROPORTIONS: The normal distribution is a good approximation for a binomial when $np>5$ and $n(1-p)>5$. When the occurrences of successes are small in comparison with the total amount of observations, it is the actual number of expected observations that will determine if a normal approximation of a poisson process can be considered ($\lambda \geq 5$).
Although the post hyperlinked is old, I haven't found in CV an R function for it. This may be due to the fact explained above re: $\chi^2_{(df=1)}\sim \, N_{(0,1)}^2$.
The Test Statistic is:
$ \displaystyle Z = \frac{\frac{x_1}{n_1}-\frac{x_2}{n_2}}{\sqrt{p\,(1-p)(1/n_1+1/n_2)}}$ with $\displaystyle p = \frac{x_1\,+\,x_2}{n_1\,+\,n_2}$, where $x_1$ and $x_2$ are the number of "successes" (in our case, sadly, heartburn), over the number of subjects in that each one of the levels of the categorical variable (Drug A and Drug B), i.e. $n_1$ and $n_2$.
In the linked page there is an ad hoc formula. I have been toying with a spin-off with a lot of loose ends. It defaults to a two-tailed alpha value of 0.05, but can be changed, as much as it can be turned into a one tailed t = 1:
zprop = function(x1, x2, n1, n2, alpha=0.05, t = 2){
nume = (x1/n1) - (x2/n2)
p = (x1 + x2) / (n1 + n2)
deno = sqrt(p * (1 - p) * (1/n1 + 1/n2))
z = nume / deno
print(c("Z value:",abs(round(z,4))))
print(c("Cut-off quantile:",
abs(round(qnorm(alpha/t),2))))
print(c("pvalue:", pnorm(-abs(z))))
}
In our case:
zprop(64, 92 , 178, 190)
[1] Z value: 2.4183
[1] Cut-off quantile: 1.96
[1] pvalue: 0.0077
Giving the same z value as the function in the R-Bloggers: z.prop(64, 178 , 92, 190) [1] -5.44273
OK... Hope it helps somebody out there, and I'm sure mistakes will be pointed out...
